Superior in data collection on dependable and convincing Greater accuracy and reliability of data. Establishing the validity of observation is always difficult 2. The problem of subjectivity also involved 3. There is the possibility of distortion of the phenomena through the very act of observing. It is a slow and laborious process 5. The events may not be easily classifiable 6.
The data may be unmanageable 7. It is going to be a costly affair 8. It cannot offer quantitative generations. A self-report is a type of survey, questionnaire, or poll in which respondents read the question and select a response by themselves without researcher interference. A self-report is any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs and so on. Examples of self-reports are questionnaires and interviews; self-reports are often used as a way of gaining participants' responses in observational studies and experiments.
Questionnaires are a type of self-report method which consist of a set of questions usually in a highly structured written form. Questionnaires can contain both open questions and closed questions and participants record their own answers. Interviews are a type of spoken questionnaire where the interviewer records the responses.
Interviews can be structured whereby there is a predetermined set of questions or unstructured whereby no questions are decided in advance. The main strength of self-report methods are that they are allowing participants to describe their own experiences rather than inferring this from observing participants. Questionnaires and interviews are often able to study large samples of people fairly easy and quickly. However participants may not respond truthfully, either because they cannot remember or because they wish to present themselves in a socially acceptable manner.
Social desirability bias can be a big problem with self-report measures as participants often answer in a way to portray themselves in a good light. Questions are not always clear and we do not know if the respondent has really understood the question we would not be collecting valid data. If questionnaires are sent out, say via email or through tutor groups, response rate can be very low.
Questions can often be leading. That is, they may be unwittingly forcing the respondent to give a particular reply. Therefore psychologists often carry out semi-structured interviews which consist of some pre-determined questions and followed up with further questions which allow the respondent to develop their answers. Such questions provide quantitative data, which is easy to analyse. Open questions are those questions which invite the respondent to provide answers in their own words and provide qualitative data.
Although these type of questions are more difficult to analyse, they can produce more in-depth responses and tell the researcher what the participant actually thinks, rather than being restricted by categories. One of the most common rating scales for self-reporting is the Likert scale. A statement is used and the participant decides how strongly they agree or disagree with the statements.
One strength of Likert scales is that they can give an idea about how strongly a participant feels about something. This therefore gives more detail than a simple yes no answer. Another strength is that the data are quantitative, which are easy to analyse statistically.
The great advantage of self reporting is that it gives free environment to response or show their emotions. At the same time there may be possibilities for hiding natural emotions as per situations. The more focused the observational records, the more helpful they can be in making daily decisions about instructional approaches. Anecdotal records are reports about the teacher informal observations about students. It will be a good tool to bring positive behavioral patterns through daily observation and correction.
Observing children in instructional settings : Formal and information is the starting point in the preparation of anecdotal records. Maintaining a standards-based focus : Follow some criterias as standards at the time of observation. Making anecdotal records : Writing quality anecdotal records is facilitated by keeping in mind the following considerations: Write observable data, use significant abbreviations, write records in the past tense.
Managing anecdotal records : Once the records are coded for strengths, needs, or information, simply list an abbreviated summary of the strengths and the needs in the space provided below the records.
Separating the records into strengths and needs allows the teacher to summarize what patterns are being exhibited by the student. The summary also helps clarify and generate appropriate instructional recommendations. The standards also inform the selection of strategies and activities for instructional recommendations. The time between analyses may vary according to your own academic calendar. It gives an idea of the personality of an individual as the observer judge the behavior of a person includes a limited number of aspects of a thing or of traits.
Rating means the judgment of one person by another. Writes Ruth Strang. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale or values. Rating techniques are devises by which such judgments may be qualified. The ratings are done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers and judges and by the self as well.
Rating is a term applied to expression of opinion or judgment regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of values. Rating scale refers to a set of points which describe varying degrees of the dimension of an attribute being observed. Description of the characteristics to be related, 2. Some methods by which the quality, frequency or importance of each item to be rated may be given.
The trait to be treated should be reading observable. The specific trait or mode of behavior must be defined properly. The scale should be clearly defined ie, We are rating at a three, four or fire-point scale. Uniform standards of rating scale should be observed. The rater should observe the rates in different situations involving the trait to be rated.
The number of characteristics to be rated should be limited. In the rating scale, card, some space may be provided for the rater to write some supplementary material. The directions of using the rating scales should be clear and comprehensive. Several judges may be employed to increase the reliability of any rating scale. Well informed and experienced persons should be selected for rating.
According to Guilford , P. Numerical scale Itemized rating scale 2. Graphic scale 3. Standard scale 4. Rating by cumulative points 5. Forced choice ratings. Numerical Scale In the typical numerical scale, a sequence of defined numbers is applied to the rater or the observer, The rater assigns an appropriate number in line to each stimulus.
Most pleasant imaginable 9. Most pleasant 8. Extremely pleasant 7. Moderately pleasant 6. Mildly present 5. Indifferent 4. Mildly unpleasant 3. Modularity unpleasant 2. Extremely unpleasant 1. Most unpleasant 0. Most unpleasant imaginable Thus in a typical numerical scale, numbers are assigned to each trait. If it is a seven point scale the number of 7 represents the maximum amount of that trait in the individual and 4 represents the construct.
Numerical rating scale are easiest to construct and to apply. They are simplest in handling the results. But this rating scales are rejected in favor of other types of scales because it is believed that they suffer from many biases and errors. Graphic Scale Graphic scale is the most popular and widely used type of rating scale. In this scale, a straight line is shown.
Vertically or horizontally, The line is either segmented in units or it is continuous. Scale points with brief description may be indicated along the line. There are many advantages of graphic scale. The respondents may check at almost any position along the line which fact may increase the difficulty of analysis. Standard scales. In standard scales a set of standards is presented to the rater.
The standards are usually objects of some kind to be rated with preestablished scale values. The man to man scale and portrait matching scale are other two forms that conform more or less to the principle of standards scales. Man — to — man scale is used in connection with military personal. In the construction of a forced — choice rating instrument, descriptions are obtained concerning persons who are recognized as being at the highest and lowest extremes of the performance continue for a particular group to be rated.
In forming an item, elements are paired. Two statements or terms with the same high preference value are paired, one of which is valid and the other not. Two statements or terms with about equally low preference value are also paired, one being valid and the other not. Helpful in measuring specified outcomes or objectives of education 2.
Helpful in supplementing other sources of understanding about the child. Helpful in their simulating effect upon the individuals who are rated.
Helpful in writing reports to parents 5. Helpful in filling out admission 6. Helpful in making recommendations to the employers. Helpful to the students to rate himself. Some characteristics are more different to rate. Subjective element is present. Lack of opportunities to rate students. Rates tend to be generally generous. Some of them are discussed as under. Sometimes raters would not like to bring down their own people by giving them low ratings.
The result is that high ratings are given in almost all cases. Such an error is known as generosity error. Some raters have a tendency to rate all individuals low. There is a tendency in some observers to rate all or most of the rates near the midpoint of the scale. Such an Error occurs when the characteristics or the trait to be rated is misunderstood.
A checklist is a selected list of words, phrases, or sentences following which an observer records a check to denote the presence or absence of whatever being observed. When we want to asses whether some traits are present or absent in the behavior of an individual, we can use check list method. This consists of a number of statements on various traits of personality.
The statement which applies to the individuals is checked. The checklist is an important tool in gathering facts for educational surveys, that is for checking of library, laboratory, game facilities, school building, textbooks, instructional surveys, that is for checking of library, laboratory procedures, etc. Which are completed by the respondent rather than by the observer. There are various ways of writing and arranging the items in a checklist.
Kempler has suggested four ways and the researcher may make use of all or some of them to serve his purpose best. The form in which items are positive statements and the respondent or observer is asked to put a tick mark in the space provided Eg. The school organizes debates weekly, fortnightly, monthly, annually, irregularly. The items of the checklist should be phrased in such a way that they are discriminative in quality.
It will increase the validity of the check list. A preliminary tryout of the check list may also prove helpful in making the tool one objective. The tabulation, qualification and interpretation of the checklist response is done in very much the same way as that of the questionnaire responses.
According to Covillo Costallo and othrs. Ambiguous material : Projective tests often use ambeyours material to which the subject must respond freely often in descriptive form. Ambigious material mean that every subject can interpret the test stimulate in his own way. Evoke responses from unconscious : The test stimulate evoke responses from unconscious of the subject.
The subject projects his inner feelings in the test situation. Multi dimensionality of responses: The dimensions in which the subject can respond are various as physical, intellectual, social and emotional. It is possible for the subject to make a great variety of responses to the test task. Freedom to respond. The projective techniques provide full freedom to the subject to test stimuli. He is not restricted as regards the nature of responses.
Holistic approach : It means that projective tests attempt to study the totality of behavior. They do not explore the molecular behavior of the individual. They emphasizes the moral approach to understand personality. Answers are not right or wrong : The responses of the subject are not second or evaluated as right or wrong. They are evaluated qualitatively. Purpose of the test is disguised.
The purpose of the test is not disclosed to the subject otherwise he becomes test conscious and may hide his real feelings. Types of projective measures. In this test ten standard cards, each bearing an inkblot, representing different diagnostic categories, are administered to subjects, who are then asked to interpret and describe what they see. The test administrator notes down this description for subsequent analysis i.
The scoring is done objectively on the basis of colour, form, movement, content speed originality. Scores can be categorized three….. Location 2. Contents 3. Location involves seeing of the whole. Determinant includes shape, colour, shading movement human figure, animal figures. This thorschach technique has been used in clinical personality as also some aspects of subjects mental life , adjustment process, depression define mechanism etc.
It consists of 20 pictures Morgan Each picture is ambiguous enough to permit a variety of interpretations. Most people when they makeup such stories identify themselves with one of the characters in the picture and their stories may be little more than thirty disguised autobiographies. If makes an hour to administer the test and the testee may be asked to appear before an interview. The stories are analyses to know the testee attitudes wishes and mental life. These stories reflect the repressed motivations of the subject.
The test is more useful in knowing general personality rather than the diagnostic aspects. If can be used with Thorchach to obtain better results. Each story is scored out under four main Categories vectors levels conditions qualifies. Vectors : drives, feeling direction of Behaviour Levels : Object description, wish intention night dream Conditions : psychological, physical, social, valences, depression,anxiety, security and Qualifies : temporal characteristics contingency casualty,negation This test is being employed in clinical studies of the maladjusted and abnormal section of students normal group.
Pictures Instead if using dolls, the researcher presents pictures to the child and ask questions about them one could present pictures of rural and urban persons, Rajasthani and Gujarathi females, Hindus and Muslims, Brahmins and lalits and soon and ask with whom the child would like to play with. The respondents are given some incomplete stories on sentences for completion. In the story , the end is not given but the children are asked to finish it.
A partial sentence is asked to complete with the first word or phrase that comes to mind. For example. Words Association Test WAT Lindzey calls this also as association techniques in this test, the subject is given a list of words, one at a time, and asked to link it with the word that immediately comes to his the mind.
These wards are recorded. It is not necessary that all respondents will point out all roles which a teacher is to perform. Say, to teach, to guide, to control, to increate, values, and so on. Every respondent will answer the question as he perceives it… A doctor is described as commercial — minded, greedy, inefficient, careless. A vegetable, seller is seen as cheat, liar greedy, impolite.
It is only is face association process that the person reveals him inner feelings about the subject. Ward association test are affected by clasped time. Dolls have also been used extensively in studying prejudies. This is called a third person technique because it is a dynamic —re-enactment of the third person technique in a given situation.
This techniques can be used to determine a true feeling of a student about a teacher in a class situation. Role playing is particularly useful in investigating situations.
Where interpersonal relationship are the subject of the research, eg : husband — wife, shop keeper — customer — employer-employee officers — clerk etc. An individual reveals himself in various situations and sometimes he is not aware of this fact. Thus we get reliable information. The connection between diagnosis and the situation is very close 3.
It is not possible for the individual to give readymade habitual or conventional responses as the tasks presented are novel and instrumented. These techniques encourage spontaneous responses. These enable us to have a total view of the personality of an individual rather than in piece — meal. It is the most flexible tool in collecting both quantitative and qualitative information.
A questionnaire cannot be judged as good or bad , efficient or inefficient unless the job it was intended to accomplish is known. Developing a questionnaire requires a certain amount of technical knowledge. The researcher must decide the points like method of data collection , procedure to be followed in approaching the respondent order of sequence of questions structured vs unstructured questions while framing a questionnaire. Scope of Questionnaire. When very large samples are desired.
Cost have to be kept low. The target groups who are likely to have high response rates are specialized. Ease of administration is necessary. Moderate response rate is considered satisfactory.
It has been used for wide range of problems like ; 1. The problem of teacher training. Administrative difficulties , 3. Method of teaching. Testing of achievements.
Duties difficulties of teachers. Rating of school textbooks, etc. Characteristics of A Good Questionnaire. It deals with an important or significant topic so that it enthuses respondent to give response. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself.
It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources like books reports and records. It is as short as possible because long questionnaire are frequently thrown away into the waste paper —basket. It is at the same time as much comprehensive as necessary so that it does not leave out any relevant and crucial information. It is attractive in appearance, neatly arranged and clearly duplicated or printed. Directions are clear and complete , important terms are clarified each question deals with single idea and is worded in simple and clear manner as possible and provide an opportunity for easy accurate unambiguous response.
The questions are objective with no clues ,hints or suggestions as to the responses desired. Leading questions are carefully avoided. Questions are presented in good psychological order proceeding from general to more specific responses. The offending annoying or embarrassing questions have to be avoided as far as possible. Items are arranged in categories to ensure easy and accurate responses. Descriptive adjectives and adverbs that have no agreed up on meaning are avoided.
Double negatives are also avoided. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one questions or putting two questions in one question are also avoided.
It is easy to tabulate summarize and interpret. Various Forms of questionnaire Questions in the questionnaire may vary with respect to a number of criteria.
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Questions On the basis of the nature of information elicited questions may be classified as primary , secondary, and tertiary. Primary questions elicit information directly related to the research topic. Secondary questions elicit information which do not relate directly to the topic , ie, the information is of secondary importance. Tertiary questions only establish a frame work that allows convenient data collection and sufficient information without exhausting or biasing the respondent.
Closed —ended and open —ended questions The closed- ended are the fixed choice questions. They require the respondent to choose a response from those provided by the researcher. It is easy to fill out, takes less time keeps the respondent on the subject is relatively more objective , more acceptable and convenient to respondent and is fairly easy to tabulate and analyse. The open-ended type questions which respondents to answer in their own words. The subject reveals his mind gives his responses.
This type of item is some times difficult to interpret, tabulate and summarize in the research report. Structured and non- structured questions The structured questions contains definite concrete and direct questions where as non — structured may consist of partially compleated questions or statements.
A non- structured questionnaire is often used as the interview guide which is non — directive. The interviewer posses only a blue print of the enquires and he is largely free to arrange the from or statements of the questions. Steps In Questionnaire Construction Questionnaires are constructed in a systematic manner. The process goes through a number of interrelated steps. They are; 1. Preparation; The researcher thinks of various items to be covered in the questionnaire and arrangement of these items in relation to another.
Constructing the first draft; The researcher formulates a number of questions including all types of questions. Self evaluation; The researcher thinks about relevance systemtically, clarity in language, etc.
Revision ; After receiving suggestions some questions are eliminated some changed and some questions are added. Pre — test or pilot study; A pre test is undertaken to check the suitability of the questionnaire as a whole. Revision ; The minor and major change may be made on the basis of experience gained in pre- testing. Second pre —testing ; The revised questionnaire is then subjected to a second test and amended if necessary.
Preparing final draft; After editing ,checking ,spelling , space for response , pre coding, the final —draft is prepared. Administering Questionnaire It can be administered in several ways; 1. Self Administered questionnaire ; there are two type of self administered questionnaires. They are a Self administered questionnaires in the presence of the researcher ; The presence of a researcher is helpful in that it enables any queries or uncertainties to be added immediately with the questionnaire designer.
It can be inexpensive to operate. In postal questionnaire use good quality envelop , typed and addressed to a named person wherever possible , also first class rapid postage service to send the questionnaire. Telephone ; In this respondents can be contacted at their convenient time even in the evening.
It can be recorded in machine. Internet ; It is conducted with the help of the help computers. It can be administered only between those persons both of them have computer and internet facility.
Advantages of Questionnaire It has greater potentialities when it is properly used otherwise progress in many areas of education would be greatly handicapped.
It is economical way of collecting information to educaters. It permits a nation wide or even international coverge. It is easy to plan construct and administer. Once it has been constructed skillfully the investigator may ask anybody to administer it on his behalf. Confidential informations often may be obtained more readily by means of questionnaire. It places less pressure on the subject for immediate response. It may be used as a preliminary tool for conducting a depth study later on by any other method.
Limitations of Questionnaire 1. The mailed questionnaires can be used only for educated people also restricts the number of respondents. The return rate of questionnaire is low. The mailing address may not correct which may omit some eligible respondents. Sometimes different respondents interpret questions differently. The researcher is not present to explain the meaning of certain concepts the respondent may leave the question blank. It does not provide an opportunity for collecting additional information.
The respondent can consult others before filling in the questionnaire this response cannot be considered as his own views. There is a lack of depth or probing for a more specific answer. Children in school situations mostly interact in groups.
To deal effectively with social groups one must study the dynamics of social behavior. The class has the following essential properties which make it a group in the psychological sense: 1.
A common goal 2. Organised structure 3. Motivation 4. The neural network forms the basis for the intelligent algorithms of machine learning. It is a form of data-driven analytics that attempts, with minimal intervention, to understand how the human brain would process insights and predict values.
Neural networks learn from each and every data transaction, meaning that they evolve and advance over time. A typical area of application for neural networks is predictive data analysis.
There are BI reporting tools that have this feature implemented within them, such as the Predictive Analytics Tool from datapine. This tool enables users to quickly and easily generate all kinds of predictions. All you have to do is select the data to be processed based on your KPIs, and the software automatically calculates forecasts based on historical and current data. The aim here is to uncover independent latent variables, an ideal analysis method for streamlining specific data segments.
A good example to understand this data analysis method is a customer evaluation of a product. The initial assessment is based on different variables like color, shape, wearability, current trends, materials, comfort, place where they bought the product, frequency of usage. Like this, the list can be endless, depending on what you want to track. In this case, factor analysis comes to the picture by summarizing all of these variables into homogenous groups, for example, by grouping the variables color, materials, quality, and trends into a brother latent variable of design.
If you want to start analyzing data using factor analysis we recommend you to take a look at this practical guide from UCLA. A method of analysis that is the umbrella term for engineering metrics and insights for additional value, direction, and context. By using exploratory statistical evaluation, data mining aims to identify dependencies, relations, data patterns, and trends to generate and advanced knowledge. An excellent example of data mining is datapine intelligent data alerts.
With the help of artificial intelligence and machine learning, they provide automated signals based on particular commands or occurrences within a dataset. By doing so, you will be able to drill down deep into the issue and fix it swiftly and effectively. In the following picture you can see an example of how the intelligent alarms from datapine work. By setting up ranges on daily orders, sessions and revenues, the alarms will notify you if the goal was not completed or if it exceeded the expectations.
Text analysis, also known in the industry as text mining, is the process of taking large sets of textual data and arranging it in a way that makes it easier to manage. By working through this cleansing process in stringent detail, you will be able to extract the data that is truly relevant to your business and use it to develop actionable insights that will propel you forward. Modern data analyst tools and techniques accelerate the process of text analytics. Thanks to the combination of machine learning and intelligent algorithms, you can perform advanced analytical processes such as sentiment analysis.
This technique allows you to understand the intentions and emotions of a text, for example, if it's positive, negative, or neutral, and then give it a score depending on certain factors and categories that are relevant for your brand.
Sentiment analysis is often used to monitor brand and product reputation and to understand how successful your customer experience is.
To learn more about the topic check out this insightful article. By analyzing data from various word-based sources, including product reviews, articles, social media communications, and survey responses, you will gain invaluable insights into your audience, as well as their needs, preferences, and pain points. One of the most effective data analysis tools and techniques you will ever invest in.
This is one of the most important data analytics techniques as it will shape the very foundations of your success. To help you ask the right things and ensure your data works for you, you have to ask the right data analysis questions. After giving your data analytics methodology some real direction, and knowing which questions need answering to extract optimum value from the information available to your organization, you should continue with data democratization.
Data democratization is a process that aims to connect data from various sources efficiently and quickly so that anyone in your organization can access it at any given moment. You can extract data in text, images, videos, numbers, or any other format. And then perform cross-database analysis to achieve more advanced insights to share with the rest of the company interactively. Once you have decided on your most valuable data sources, you need to take all of this information into a structured format to start collecting your insights.
For this purpose, datapine offers an easy all-in-one data connectors feature to integrate all your internal and external data sources and manage them at your will.
After harvesting from so many sources you will be left with a vast amount of information that can be overwhelming to deal with. At the same time, you can be faced with incorrect data that can be misleading to your analysis. The smartest thing you can do to avoid dealing with this in the future is to clean the data.
This process is fundamental before visualizing it, as it will ensure that the insights you extract from it are correct. There are many things that you need to look for while cleaning your data. The most important one is to eliminate any duplicate observations; this usually appears when using multiple internal and external sources of data.
You can also add any missing codes, fix empty fields, and eliminate incorrectly formatted data. Another usual form of cleaning is done with text data. As we mentioned earlier, most companies today analyze customer reviews, social media comments, questionnaires, and several other text inputs.
In order for algorithms to detect patterns, text data needs to be revised to avoid invalid characters or any syntax or spelling errors. Most importantly, the aim of cleaning your data is to prevent you from arriving at false conclusions that can damage your business in the long run. By using clean data, you will also help business intelligence tools to interact better with your information and create better reports for your organization.
KPIs are critical to both analysis methods in qualitative and quantitative research. To help you set the best possible KPIs for your initiatives and activities, here is an example of a relevant logistics KPI : transportation-related costs. A good KM system should be easy to navigate and search. A good KM system should be flexible enough and configurable enough to adapt to your changing needs. A good KM system produces timely, accurate, concise and precise information that you can utilize process to make high quality decisions.
Major Components of KMS Identification of required and applicable knowledge management activities in an organization facilitates effective mapping of prospective knowledge management processes, which then determine fitting knowledge management system.
Generation—Probe for potential problems that might exist in the future using a brainstorming approach. Step 2. Evaluation—Review problems uncovered for managerial concern, backed up by a cost-benefit analysis. If appropriate, use creative computer software to generate new ways to evaluate future problems.
Step 3. Validation—Select actual problems for managerial concern. If appropriate, relate to the company's critical success factors.
Step 4. Establish Boundaries— Define each potential problem within its boundaries to cover the whole area encompassed by the problem. Use steps from the problem-solving process. Opportunity-Centered Approach Step 1. Exploration—Examine the environment for opportunities that come from problems uncovered using a brainstorming approach. If appropriate, use creative computer software to explore new ideas to exploit these opportunities.
Selection—Determine that one or more opportunities should be explored by management. Examine Boundaries— Survey the environment for each opportunity and determine the proper boundaries. Knowledge Management Strategy 2. Organizational Structure 3. Culture 4. Installed Technology Platforms 5. Talent Flexibility 6. Knowledge Evaluation 7.
Knowledge Processing 8. Knowledge Implementation 9. Leadership Drive Project Scope KMS Project Feasibility
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